Tools for Thought by Howard Rheingold

Chapter Two: The First Programmer Was a Lady

[1] B. V. Bowden, ed., Faster than Thought, (New York: Pitman), 15.

[2] Ibid., 16.

[3] Herman Goldstine, The computer from Pascal to von Neumann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972), 100.

[4] Philip Morrison and Emily Morrison, eds., Charles Babbage and his Calculating Engines (New York: Dover Publications, 1961), 33.

[5] Doris Langley Moore, Ada, Countess of Lovelace: Byron's Legitimate Daughter (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 44.

[6] Ibid., 155.

[7] Morrison and Morrison, Babbage, 251-252.

[8] Ibid., 284.

[9] Bowden, Faster Than Thought, 18.

[10] George Boole, An investigation of the Laws of Thought, on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities (London: Macmillan, 1854; reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1958), 1-3

[11]Leon E Truesdell, The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census, 1890-1940 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965), 30-31.

[12] Ibid., 31.

Chapter Three: The First Hacker and his Imaginary Machine

[1] Alan M. Turing, "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem," Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, second series, vol. 42, part 3, November 12, 1936, 230-265.

[2] An amusing example of an easily constructed Turing machine, using pebbles and toilet paper, is given in the third chapter of Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976).

[3] Turing, "Computable Numbers."

[4] Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 396.

[5]Ibid., 326.

[6] Alan M. Turing, "Computing Machinery and intelligence," Mind, vol. 59, no. 236 (1950).

[7] Ibid.

[8] Hodges, Turing, 488.

Chapter Four: Johnny Builds Bombs and Johnny Builds Brains

[1] Steve J. Heims, John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1980), 371.

[2] C. Blair, "Passing of a great Mind," Life,, February 25, 1957, 96.

[3] Stanislaw Ulam, "John von Neumann, 1903-1957," Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 64, (1958), 4.

[4] Goldstine, The Computer, 182.

[5] Daniel Bell, The coming of Post-Industrial Society (New York: Basic Books. 1973), 31.

[6] Katherine Fishman, The Computer Establishment (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1981), 22.

[7] Ibid., 24.

[8] Goldstine, The Computer, 153.

[9] Ibid., 149.

[10] Heims, von Neumann and Wiener, 186.

[11] Goldstine, The Computer, 196.

[12] Hodges, Turing, 288.

[13] Ibid., 288.

[14] Goldstine, The Computer, 196-197.

[15] Arthur W. Burks, Herman H. Goldstine, and John von Neumann, "Preliminary discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument," Datamation, September-October 1962.

[16] Goldstine, The Computer, 242.

[17] Manfred Eigen and Ruthlid Winkler, Laws of the Game (New York: Knopf, 1981), 189, 192.

Chapter Five: Ex-Prodigies and Antiaircraft Guns

[1] H. Addington Bruce, New Ideas in Child Training," American Magazine, July 1911, 291-292.

[2] I. Grattan-Guiness, "The Russell Archives: Some New Light on Russell's Logicism," Annals of Science, vol. 31 (1974), 406.

[3] M. D. Fagen, ed., A history of Engineering and science in the Bell System: National Service in War and Peace (1925-1975) (Murray Hill, N.J.: Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1978), 135.

[4] Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1948), 8.

[5] Adam Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener, and John Bigelow, "Behavior, Purpose, and Teleology," Philosophy of Science, vol. 10 (1943), 18-24.

[6] Warren McCulloch, Embodiments of Mind Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965).

[7] Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity," Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, vol. 5 (1943), 115-133.

[8] Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think (San Francisco: W. H Freeman, 1979) 66.

[9] Heims, von Neumann and Wiener, 205.

[10] Norbert Wiener, I Am a Mathematician: The Later Life of a Prodigy (Cambridge, Mass: MIT press, 1966), 325.

[11] Wiener, Cybernetics.

[12] Jeremy Campbell, Grammatical Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 21.

[13] Heims, von Neumann and Wiener, 208.

[14] McCorduck, Machines Who Think, 42.

Chapter Six: Inside Information

[1] Claude E. Shannon, "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits," Transactiona of the AIEE, vol. 57 (1938), 713.

[2] Claude E. Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Information," Bell Systems Technical Journal, vol. 27 (1948), 379-423, 623-656.

[3] Claude E. Shannon, "The Bandwagon," IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. 2, no. 3 (1956), 3.

[4] Noam Chomsky, Reflections on Language (New York: Pantheon, 1975).

[5] Claude E. Shannon, "Computers and Automata," Proceedings of the IRE, vol. 41, 1953, 1234-1241.

[6] Campbell, Grammatical Man, 20.

Chapter Seven: Machines to Think With

[1] J.C.R. Licklider, "Man-Computer Symbiosis," IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, vol. HFE-1, March 1960, 4-11.

[2] Ibid., 6.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid., 7.

[5] Ibid., 4.

Chapter Eight: Witness to History: The Mascot of Project Mac

[1] Hubert Dreyfus, what Computers Can't Do: a critique of Artificial Reason (New York: Harper & Row, 1972).

[2] R. D. Greenblatt, D. E. Eastlake, and S. D. Crocker, "The Greenblatt Chess Program," Conference Proceedings, American Federation of Information Processing Societies, vol. 31 (1967), 801-810.

[3] Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason (San Francisco" W. H. Freeman, 1976), 2-3.

[4] Ibid., 116.

[5] Ibid., 118-119.

[6] Philip Zimbardo, "Hacker Papers," Psychology Today, August 1980, 63.

[7] Ibid., 67-68

[8] Frank Rose, "Joy of Hacking," Science 82, November 1982, 66.

Chapter Nine: The Loneliness of a Long-Distance Thinker

[1] Vannevar Bush, As We May Think," the Atlantic Monthly, August 1945.

[2] Nilo Lindgren, "Toward the Decentralized Intellectual Workshop," Innovation, No. 24, September 1971.

[3] Douglas C. Engelbart, "A Conceptual Framework for the Augmentation of a Man's Intellect," in Vistas in Information Handling, vol. 1, Paul William Howerton and David C. Weeks, eds. (Washington: Spartan Books, 1963), 1-29.

[4] Ibid., 4-5.

[5] Ibid., 5.

[6] Ibid., 6-7.

[7] Ibid., 14.

[8] Douglas C Engelbart, "NLS Teleconferencing Features: The Journal, and Shared-Screen Telephoning," IEEE Digest of Papers, CompCon, Fall 1975, 175-176.

[9] Douglas C Engelbart, "Intellectual Implications of Multi-Access Computing," Proceedings of the Interdisciplinary Conference on Multi-Access Computer Networks, April 1970.

[10] Peter F. Drucker, The Effective Executive(New York: Harper & Row, 1967).

[11] Peter F Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to Our Changing Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1968).

[12] Douglas C. Engelbart, R. W. Watson, and James Norton, "The Augmented Knowledge Workshop," AFIPS Conference Proceedings, vol. 42 (1973), 9-21.

Chapter Ten: The New Old Boys from the ARPAnet

[1] J. C. R. Licklider, Robert Taylor, and E. Herbert, "The Computer as a Communication Device," International Science and Technology, April 1978.

[2] Ibid., 22.

[3] Ibid., 21.

[4] Ibid., 27.

[5] Ibid., 27.

[6] Ibid., 30.

[7] Ibid. 31.

[8] David Canfield Smith, Charles Irby, Ralph Kimball, and Eric Harslem, The Star User Interface: An Overview," in Office Systems Technology (El Segundo, Calif.: Xerox Corporation, 1982).

[9] Ibid., 25.

Chapter Eleven: The Birth of the Fantasy Amplifier

[1] Ted Nelson, The Home Computer Revolution (self-published, 1977), 120-123.

[2] Michael Schrage, "Alan Kay's Magical Mystery Tour," TWA Ambassador, January 1984, 36.

[3] Seymour Papert, Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas (New York: Basic Books, 1980), 183.

[4] Alan Kay, "Microlectronics and the Personal Computer," Scientific American, September 1977, 236.

[5] Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg, "Personal Dynamic Media," Computer, March 1977, 31.

[6] Alan Kay, "Microlectronics," 236.

[7] Ibid., 239

[8] Ibid., 244

[9] Ibid.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

Chapter Thirteen: Knowledge Engineers and Epistemological Entrepreneurs

[1] Avron Barr, "Artificial Intelligence: Cognition as Computation," in The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages. Fritz Machulp.

[2] Katherine Davis Fishman, The Computer Establishment

[3] Edward A. Fiegenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, and Joshua Lederberg, "On Generality and Problem Solving: A case study using the DENDRAL Program," in Machine Intelligence 6, B. Metzler and D. Michie, eds. (New York: Elsevier, 1971) 165-190.

[4] Fishman, Computer Establishment, 364.

[5] "A rebel in the Computer Revolution," Science Digest, August 1983, 96.

[6] Avron Barr and Edward Fiegenbaum, eds., Handbook of Artificial Intelligence (Los Altos, Calif.: William Kaufmann, 1981).

[7] Avron Barr, J. S. Bennet, and C. W. Clancey, "Transfer of Expertise: A Theme of AI Research," Working Paper No. HPP-79-11, Stanford University, Heuristic Programming Project (1979), 1..

[8] Ibid., 5.

[9] Edward Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, eds., Computers and Thought (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963).

[10] Avron Barr, "Artificial Intelligence: Cognition as Computation," 18.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Ibid., p. 19.

[13] Ibid., p.22.

Chapter Fourteen: Xanadu, Network Culture, and Beyond

[1] Ted Nelson, Dream Machines/Computer Lib (self-published, 1974).

[2] Ted Nelson, Literary Machines (self-published, 1983).

[3] Ibid., 1/17.

[4] Ibid., 1/18.

[5] Ted Nelson, "A New Home For the Mind," Datamation, March 1982, 174.

[6] Ibid., 180.

[7] Roy Amara, John Smith, Murray Turoff, and Jaques Vallee "Computerized Conferencing, a New Medium," Mosaic, January-February 1976.

[8] Ibid., p 21.

[9] Sarah N. Rhodes, The Role of the National Science Foundation in the Development of the Electronic Journal(Washington: National Science Foundation, Division of Information Science and Technology, 1976).